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Newborn skeleton
Lateral view
1 Cranial bones
2 Vertebral column
3 Ribs
4 Clavicle
5 Scapula
6 Humerus
7 Ulna
8 Radius
9 Carpals
10 Metacarpals
11 Phalanges
12 Os coxae
13 Femur
14 Patella
15 Tibia
16 Fibula
17 Tarsals
18 Metatarsals
Adult skeleton
Lateral view
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Th e axial skeleton, comprised of the skull, vertebral column,
ribs, and sternum, forms the central axis of the
body. Th is sturdy central core is the most primitive portion of the vertebrate skeletal system. It
evolved as the initial skeleton of the fi rst vertebrate
animals, to which the limb bones (the subject of
the next chapter) were much later additions. Th e
majority of the axial skeleton’s bony elements, from
the bones at the base of the skull through all the
vertebrae and ribs, form as serial homologues from the
segmental embryonic somites. Because of this shared
developmental similarity each body segment, from the
base of the skull to the end of the coccyx, has the same
basic skeletal design. Th is is clearly evident in the
structure of the vertebrae and ribs. As you study these
skeletal elements in the photos of this chapter, notice
their similarities.
Th e elements of the axial skeleton have
many functional roles in the body. Both the
cranial skeleton and the vertebral column
form a strong protective case around the
delicate tissues of the central nervous system.
Additionally, the cranium fi xes in space important nervous structures, such as the internal
ear and eye, both of which would not function
properly in an unstable environment. Th e cranium also plays an important role in the acquisition and processing of food, respiratory gases,
and sensory input such as sound. In addition to
protecting the spinal cord, the vertebrae form a
strong, fl exible rod. Th is strong, fl exible column not only
forms the central support axis of the body from which
the limbs are suspended, but is also capable of a varied
range of joint movements that are essential to our daily
functions.
Find more information
about the axial skeleton in
5 Axial Skeleton
33
REAL ANATOMY
34
1 Cranium
2 Hyoid bone
3 Cervical vertebral column
4 Cervical vertebra 1 - Atlas
5 Cervical vertebra 2 - Axis
6 Cervical vertebra 7
7 Thoracic vertebral column
8 Thoracic vertebra 1
9 Thoracic vertebra 12
10 Lumbar vertebral column
11 Lumbar vertebra 1
12 Lumbar vertebra 5
13 Sacrum
14 Sternum
15 Ribs
Axial skeleton
Anterior view
The axial skeleton is clearly depicted in the photos below. Note
that this portion of the skeleton consists of three principal
skeletal regions — the cranium, the vertebral column, and the
Axial Skeleton
rib cage. There are 29 cranial bones, 26 vertebral bones, and 25 bones in the rib cage. On the pages that
follow, each of the axial skeletal regions and the respective bones will be explored in greater detail.
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Axial skeleton
Lateral view Axial skeleton
Posterior view
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1 Frontal bone
2 Parietal bone
3 Occipital bone
4 Sphenoid bone
5 Temporal bone
6 Ethmoid bone
7 Inferior nasal concha
8 Lacrimal bone
9 Nasal bone
10 Vomer
11 Maxilla
12 Palatine bone
13 Zygomatic bone
14 Mandible
15 Bony nasal cavity
16 Piriform aperture
17 Inferior nasal meatus
18 Middle nasal meatu
19 Orbit
Cranium
Anterior view
functions, that include protecting the delicate brain tissue, fi xing the vestibular apparatus of the inner ear in
three-dimensional space, maintaining open air passageways for respiration, and acquiring and processing
food, to name a few. There are two main subdivisions of the cranium — the neurocranium or brain box is the
region that surrounds and encases the brain, and the viscerocranium or facial skeleton is the area contributing
to the orbits, nasal cavity, and oral cavity. This page and the facing page, and the four page spreads that follow,
depict the fi ve normas, or views, of the cranium in both articulated and disarticulated cranial images. The
bones of the skull are labeled on these views, along with key landmarks that can only be labeled on the articulated cranium. Individual landmarks of the bones are labeled on the individual pictures of the cranial bones on
the pages that follow. This spread is of the norma facialis or facial aspect of the cranium.
The cranium is the composite skeleton of the head and is composed of 29 bones.
The bones of the cranium range from simple, non-descript plates of bone to the
most intricate bones of the skeleton. The cranial bones have a range of important
Cranium
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Bones of the cranium disarticulated
Anterior view
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1 Frontal bone
2 Parietal bone
3 Occipital bone
4 Sphenoid bone
5 Temporal bone
6 Ethmoid bone
7 Lacrimal bone
8 Nasal bone
9 Maxilla
10 Zygomatic bone
11 Mandible
12 Zygomatic arch
13 Pterygopalatine fossa
Cranium
Cranium
Lateral view
This page spread depicts the norma lateralis, or lateral aspect of the cranium. In this view both
the brain box and facial skeleton are clearly visible and the relative proportions of the two cranial
regions are evident. In the disarticulated view, only those bones that are visible in the lateral aspect are shown.
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Bones of the cranium disarticulated
Lateral view
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Cranium
1 Parietal bone
2 Occipital bone
3 Sphenoid bone
4 Temporal bone
5 Ethmoid bone
6 Inferior nasal concha
7 Vomer
8 Maxilla
9 Palatine bone
10 Zygomatic bone
11 Mandible
12 Choana or posterior nasal aperture
13 Inferior orbital fissure
14 Bony nasal cavity
15 Middle nasal meatus
16 Inferior nasal meatus
17 Bony palate
18 Sutural bone
Cranium
Posterior view
This page spread depicts the norma occipitalis, or occipital aspect of the cranium. From this posterior view the internal aspects of the bones of the oral and nasal cavities are clearly visible. In the
disarticulated view only those bones that are visible in the occipital aspect of the cranium are
depicted.
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Bones of the cranium disarticulated
Posterior view
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Cranium
1 Frontal bone
2 Parietal bone
3 Occipital bone
4 Temporal bone
5 Nasal bone
6 Maxilla
7 Zygomatic bone
Cranium
Superior view
This page spread depicts the norma superior, or superior aspect of the cranium. This view clearly
depicts the neurocranium or brain box, while the facial skeleton is almost completely hidden from
view. In the disarticulated view only those bones that are visible in the superior aspect of the cranium
are depicted.
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Bones of the cranium disarticulated
Superior view
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Cranium
1 Occipital bone
2 Sphenoid bone
3 Temporal bone
4 Vomer
5 Maxilla
6 Palatine bone
7 Zygomatic bone
8 Bony palate
9 Choana or posterior nasal aperture
10 Zygomatic arch
11 Jugular foramen
12 Foramen lacerum
13 Greater palatine foramen
14 Incisive fossa
Cranium
Inferior view
This page spread depicts the norma inferior (basalis), or inferior aspect of the cranium. The mandible has been removed to more clearly reveal the basicranium. This view clearly depicts the fl oor
of the brain box, the bony palate forming the roof of the oral cavity, and mandibular tooth row. In
the disarticulated view only those bones that are visible in the inferior aspect of the cranium are
depicted.
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Bones of the cranium disarticulated
Inferior view
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Cranium
Parasagittal section of the cranium
Medial view of the right side
This page spread depicts the cranium sectioned in a parasagittal plane through the right side of
the nasal cavity just lateral to the bony nasal septum. The section below depicts the lateral wall of
the right nasal cavity, and the section on the opposite page depicts the medial (septal) wall of the
right nasal cavity. The osseous sinuses that communicate with the nasal cavity are all visible in
these sections.
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1 Frontal bone
2 Parietal bone
3 Occipital bone
4 Sphenoid bone
5 Temporal bone
6 Ethmoid bone
7 Inferior nasal concha
8 Nasal bone
9 Vomer
10 Maxilla
11 Palatine bone
12 Mandible
19 Ethmoidal air cells (sinuses)
20 Maxillary sinus
21 Incisive canal
22 Bony nasal septum
23 Sphenopalatine foramen
24 Inferior nasal meatus
Parasagittal section of the cranium
Medial view of the left side
13 External table of calvaria
14 Diploë
15 Internal table of calvaria
16 Groove for sigmoid sinus
17 Sphenoidal sinus
18 Frontal sinus
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Cranium
Cranium with calvaria removed
Superior or internal view of the cranial base
This page spread depicts the cranium sectioned in a horizontal plane through the neurocranium,
or brain box, revealing the internal aspects of the fl oor and roof of the sectioned cranial cavity. On
this page the fl oor of the neurocranium is visible, while on the opposing page the roof of the neurocranium is visible. The superior portion of the cranium, depicted on the opposite page, is called
the calvaria.
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1 Frontal bone
2 Parietal bone
3 Occipital bone
4 Sphenoid bone
5 Temporal bone
6 Ethmoid bone
7 Clivus
8 Foramen caecum
9 Foramen lacerum
10 Jugular foramen
11 Petrosphenoidal fissure
12 Petro-occipital fissure
13 Anterior cranial fossa
14 Middle cranial fossa
15 Posterior cranial fossa
16 Granular foveolae
Removed calvaria
Inferior or internal view
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Cranial Bones – Frontal
1 Squamous part
2 Frontal tuber
3 Glabella
4 Superciliary arch
5 Supra-orbital notch or foramen
6 Frontal notch or foramen
7 Temporal surface
8 Zygomatic process
9 Frontal crest
10 Groove for superior sagittal sinus
11 Nasal spine
12 Orbital surface
13 Trochlear spine
14 Lacrimal fossa
15 Ethmoidal notch
16 Frontal sinus
Frontal bone
Posterior view
Frontal bone
Anterior view
vertical portion termed the squama and a horizontal plate that forms the superior walls of the orbits.
The bone has a smooth external surface, while its internal surface consists of impressions made by the
meningeal vessels and scattered foramina that transmit diploic vessels. The squamous portion of the
bone is thick. It consists of internal and external laminae of compact bone sandwiching a layer of trabecular bone called diploë. Near the anterior, inferior midline the spongy bone is absent between the
external and internal laminae and in its place are variably sized spaces — the frontal sinuses. The orbital
plate consists of a thin plate of compact bone, which is often so thin that it is translucent. The frontal
bone articulates with twelve bones.
The unpaired frontal bone has a
bowl-like shape that consists of
two parts, an internally concave
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