1988;1:1439.

Lohr JW. Osmotic demyelination syndrome following correction of hyponatremia: association with hypokalemia.

Am J Med. 1994;96:408.

Sterns RH et al. Neurologic sequelae after treatment of severe hyponatremia: a multicenter perspective. J Am

Soc Nephrol. 1994;4:1522.

Decaux G. Treatment of the syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone by long-loop diuretics.

Nephron. 1983;35:82.

Decaux G et al. Treatment of the syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone with furosemide. N

EnglJ Med. 1981;304:329.

Cherill DA et al. Demeclocycline treatment in the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion. Ann

Intern Med. 1975;83:654.

White MG, Fetner CD. Treatment of the syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone with lithium

carbonate. N EnglJ Med. 1975;292:390.

Miller PD et al. Plasma demeclocycline levels and nephrotoxicity. Correlation in hyponatremic cirrhotic patients.

JAMA. 1980;243:2513.

Decaux G et al. Lack of efficacy of phenytoin in the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion of

neurological origin. Postgrad Med J. 1989;65:456.

Decaux G et al. 5-year treatment of the chronic syndrome of inappropriate secretion of ADH with oral urea.

Nephron. 1993;63:468.

Decaux G et al. Hyponatremia in the syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone. Rapid

correction with urea, sodium chloride, and water restriction. JAMA. 1982;247:471.

Ali F et al. Therapeutic potential of vasopressin receptor antagonists. Drugs. 2007;67:847.

Lehrich RW et al. Role of vaptans in the management of hyponatremia. Am J Kidney Dis. 2013;62:364–376.

Verbalis JG. Vasopressin V2 receptor antagonists. J Mol Endocrinol. 2002;29:1.

Thibonnier M et al. The basic and clinical pharmacology of nonpeptide vasopressin receptor antagonists. Annu

Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2001;41:175.

Knepper MA. Molecular physiology of urinary concentrating mechanism: regulation of aquaporin water channels

by vasopressin. Am J Physiol. 1997;272:F3.

Burrell LM et al. Vasopressin receptor antagonism—a therapeutic option in heart failure and hypertension. Exp

Physiol. 2000;85:259S.

Verbalis JG et al. Novel vasopressin V-1A and V2 antagonist (conivaptan) increases serum sodium concentration

and effective water clearance inpatients with hyponatremia. Circulation. 2004;110:723.

Ghali J. Efficacy and safety of oral conivaptan: a V1A/V2 vasopressin receptor antagonist, assessed in a

randomized, placebo-controlled trial in patients with euvolemic or hypervolemic hyponatremia. J Clin Endocrinol

Metab. 2006;91:21.

Schrier RW et al. Tolvaptan, a selective oral vasopressin V2-receptor antagonist, for hyponatremia. N Engl J

Med. 2006;355:2099.

Gheorghiade M et al. Vasopressin V2-receptor blockade with tolvaptan in patients with chronic heart failure:

results from a double-blind, randomized trial. Circulation. 2003;107:2690.

Konstam MA et al. Effects of oral tolvaptan inpatients hospitalized for worsening heart failure: the EVEREST

Outcome trial. JAMA. 2007;297:1319.

Gheorghiade M et al. Short term clinical effects of tolvaptan, an oral vasopressin antagonist, in patients

hospitalized for heart failure: The EVEREST Clinical Status Trials. JAMA. 2007;297:1332.

Torres VE et al. Tolvaptan in patients with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. NEJM.

2012;367:2407–2418.

Boertien WE et al. Short-term effects of tolvaptan in individuals with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney

disease at various levels of kidney function. Am J Kidney Dis. 2015;65(6):833–841.

US Food and Drug Administration. Samsca (tolvaptan): drug safety communication: FDA limits duration and

usage due to possible liver injury leading to organ transplant or death.

http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm350062.htm. Accessed June 16, 2015.

Abraham WT et al. Aquaretic effect of lixivaptan, an oral, non-peptide, selective V2 receptor vasopressin

antagonist, in New York Heart Association functional class II and III chronic heart failure patients. J Am Coll

Cardiol. 2006;47:1615.

Wong F et al. A vasopressin receptor antagonist (VPA-985) improves serum sodium concentration in patients

with hyponatremia: a multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Hepatology. 2003;37:182.

100.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Gerbes AL et al. Therapy of hyponatremia in cirrhosis with a vasopressin receptor antagonist: a randomized

double-blind multicenter trial. Gastroenterology. 2003;124:933.

Abraham WT et al. Oral lixivaptan effectively increases serum sodium concentrations in outpatients with

euvolemia hyponatremia. Kidney Int. 2012;82(11):1215–1222.

Abraham WT et al. Lixivaptan safely and effectively corrects serum sodium concentrations in hospitalized

patients with euvolemia hyponatremia. Kidney Int. 2012;82(11):1223–1230.

Decaux G et al. Non-peptide arginine-vasopressin antagonists: the vaptans. Lancet. 2008;371:1624.

Verbalis JG et al. Conivaptan, a novel arginine vasopressin antagonist, produced aquaresis and increased serum

sodium concentration in patients with heart failure and euvolemic or hypervolemic hyponatremia. Crit Care

Med. 2005;33(Suppl):A170.

Morrison G et al. Hyperosmolalstates. In: Narins RG, ed. Maxwell & Kleeman’s Clinical Disorders of Fluid and

Electrolyte Metabolism. 5th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 1994:617.

Snyder NA et al. Hypernatremia in elderly patients. A heterogeneous, morbid, and iatrogenic entity. Ann Intern

Med. 1987;107:309.

Beermann B, Groschinsky-Grind M. Clinical pharmacokinetics of diuretics. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1980;5:221.

Merkus F. Is canrenone the major metabolite of spironolactone? Clin Pharm. 1983;2:209.

Skluth H, Gums JG. Spironolactone: a re-examination. DICP. 1990;24:52.

Pruitt AW et al. Variations in the fate of triamterene. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1977;21:610.

Allon M. Treatment and prevention of hyperkalemia in end-stage renal disease. Kidney Int. 1993;43:1197.

Sterns RH et al. Internal potassium balance and the control of the plasma potassium concentration. Medicine

(Baltimore). 1981;60:339.

Perrone RD et al. Regulation of extrarenal potassium metabolism. In: Narins RG, ed. Maxwell & Kleeman’s

Clinical Disorders of Fluid and Electrolyte Metabolism. 5th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 1994:129.

Salem MM et al. Extrarenal potassium tolerance in chronic renal failure: implications for the treatment of acute

hyperkalemia. Am J Kidney Dis. 1991;18:421.

Field MJ et al. Regulation of renal potassium metabolism. In: Narins RG, ed. Maxwell & Kleeman’s Clinical

Disorders of Fluid and Electrolyte Metabolism. 5th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 1994:147.

Sterns RH et al. The disposition of intravenous potassium in normal man: the role of insulin. Clin Sci (Lond).

1987;73:557.

Williams ME et al. Impairment of extrarenal potassium 3 disposal by alpha-adrenergic stimulation. N Engl J

Med. 1984;311:345.

Rosa RM et al. Adrenergic modulation of extrarenal potassium disposal. N EnglJ Med. 1980;302:431.

Androgue HJ, Madias NE. Changes in plasma potassium concentration during acute acid-base disturbances. Am

J Med. 1981;71:456.

Oster JR et al. Plasma potassium response to metabolic acidosis induced by mineral and nonmineral acids. Miner

Electrolyte Metab. 1980;4:28.

Androgue HJ et al. Determinants of plasma potassium levels in diabetic ketoacidosis. Medicine (Baltimore).

1986;65:163.

Hazeyama Y, Sparks HV. A model of potassium ion efflux during exercise of skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol.

1979;236:R83.

Krishna GG et al. Hypokalemic states. In: Narins RG, ed. Maxwell & Kleeman’s Clinical Disorders of Fluid and

Electrolyte Metabolism. 5th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 1994:659.