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The muscles that surround the hip joint form three groups. The gluteal muscles arise

from the posterior musculature of the embryonic limb bud and are prime movers of the

hip joint. They create the characteristic profi le of the human buttocks. The deep hip

Hip Muscles

Muscles of the gluteal region, gluteus maximus removed on left

Posterior view

rotator muscles are closely associated with the body wall of the pelvic region. Five of the six muscles sit deep to the gluteal

musculature on the posterior aspect of the hip joint. The hip fl exors are deep body wall muscles of the abdominal wall that

have been annexed by the lower limb during development. These muscles, the psoas major and iliacus, form a pulley over

the superior ramus of the pubis on their descent onto the lesser trochanter of the femur.

Gluteal muscles Deep hip rotator muscles

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Muscles of gluteal region, gluteus maximus and medius removed

Posterolateral view

Gluteal Muscles

 1 Gluteus maximus

 2 Gluteus medius

 3 Gluteus minimis

 4 Tensor fasciae latae

Deep Hip Rotator Muscles

 5 Piriformis

 6 Superior gemellus

 7 Obturator internus

 8 Inferior gemellus

 9 Quadratus femoris

10 Obturator externus

Hip Flexor Muscles

 11 Psoas major

12 Iliacus

Other Muscles and Structures

13 Biceps femoris

14 Semitendinosus

15 Semimembranosus

16 Adductor magnus

17 Adductor minimus

18 Gracilis

19 Vastus intermedius

20 Pelvic diaphragm

Gluteal muscles

Gluteal muscles Hip fl exor muscles

Deep hip rotator

muscles

Deep dissection of iliopsoas muscles

Anterior view

21 Transversus abdominis

22 Quadratus lumborum

23 Psoas minor

24 Pectineus (cut)

25 Iliotibal tract

26 Sacrotuberous ligament

27 Penis (cut)

28 Ilium

29 Femur

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200

The four major muscles of the anterior

compartment form the quadriceps femoris

muscle group.The four muscles of this

Anterior Thigh Muscles

group converge to form the strong quadriceps tendon that surrounds all but the posterior surface of the patella.

As the sole extensors of the knee, the quadriceps are essential for running, jumping, and kicking. The sartorius,

which is the longest muscle in the body, is a knee fl exor. The small articularis genus raises the suprapatellar

bursa during extension of the knee. All of the muscles in this compartment receive their innervation via the

femoral nerve from the posterior divisions of the lumbar plexus.

Muscles of the thigh

Anterior view, left thigh

Muscles of the thigh, rectus femoris cut

Anterior view. left thigh

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201

Deep muscles of the thigh

Anterior view

Anterior Thigh Muscles

 1 Rectus femoris

 2 Vastus lateralis

 3 Vastus intermedius

 4 Vastus medialis

 5 Sartorious

 6 Articularis genus

Other Muscles and Structures

 7 Tensor fasciae latae

 8 Transversus abdominis

 9 Rectus abdominis

10 Pyramidalis

 11 Iliacus

12 Psoas major

13 Pectineus

14 Adductor longus

15 Gracilis

16 Gluteus minimis

17 Obturator externus

18 Quadratus femoris

19 Inguinal ligament

20 Spermatic cord

21 Linea alba

22 Iliotibial tract

23 Femur

24 Inferior epigastric vessels

25 Penis (cut)

26 Rectus sheath

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202

Dissection of medial thigh muscles

Anterior view, right thigh

Dissection of medial thigh muscles

Posterior view, right thigh

The six muscles of the medial compartment are all capable

of adducting the hip joint. The pectineus and four adductor

muscles all originate from a medial position on the pubis

Medial Thigh Muscles

and ischium and project laterally to insert on the posterior surface of the femur. The gracilis muscle differs from the others

in the group by crossing the knee joint in addition to the hip. It courses with the sartorius muscle as a fl exor of the knee. With

the exception of the pectineus and condylar part of the adductor magnus, all the muscles are innervated by the obturator

nerve, which arises from the anterior divisions of the lumbar plexus.

Medial Thigh Muscles

 1 Pectineus

 2 Adductor longus

 3 Adductor brevis

 4 Adductor magnus

 5 Adductor minimis

 6 Gracilis

Other Muscles and Structures

 7 Sartorius

 8 Iliacus

 9 Psoas major

10 Tensor fasciae latae

 11 Rectus femoris

12 Obturator externus

13 Vastus lateralis

14 Articularis genus

15 Gluteus medius

16 Piriformis

17 Superior gemellus

18 Obturator internus

19 Inferior gemellus

20 Quadratus femoris

21 Biceps femoris (short head)

22 Gastrocnemius

23 Plantaris

24 Soleus

25 Pelvic diaphragm

26 Transversus abdominis

27 Rectus abdominis

28 Spermatic cord

29 Sacrotuberous ligament

30 Femur

31 Penis (cut)

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203

Muscles of the gluteal region and thigh

Posterior view, gluteus maximus removed on left

Like the medial compartment of

the thigh, the biceps femoris, semimembranosus, and semitendinosus

Posterior Thigh Muscles

arise from the embryonic anterior, or fl exor, musculature. The muscles of this compartment, the smallest

of the three thigh compartments, are long, two-joint muscles that share much in common. All three

muscles arise from the ischial tuberosity, extend the hip and fl ex the knee, and receive their nerve supply

via the tibial branch of the sciatic nerve (with the exception of the short head of the biceps femoris, which

is innervated by the common fi bular branch of the sciatic nerve). Often referred to as the hamstring

muscles, these muscles work with the sartorius and gracilis as the strong fl exors of the knee joint.

Posterior Thigh Muscles

 1 Biceps femoris (long head)

 2 Biceps femoris (short head)

 3 Semitendinosus

 4 Semimembranosus

Other Muscles and Structures

 5 Gluteus maximus

 6 Gluteus medius

 7 Piriformis

 8 Superior gemellus

 9 Obturator internus

10 Inferior gemellus

 11 Quadratus femoris

12 Adductor minimus

13 Adductor magnus

14 Pelvic diaphragm

15 Gracilis

16 Gastrocnemius

17 Sacrotuberous ligament

18 Iliotibial tract

19 Ilium

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204

Thigh Muscles

Transverse section of right thigh

Inferior view, level at mid thigh

Anterior compartment

Medial compartment

Posterior compartment

 1 Rectus femoris

 2 Vastus lateralis

 3 Vastus intermedius

 4 Vastus medialis

 5 Sartorious

 6 Gracilis

 7 Adductor longus

 8 Adductor magnus

 9 Biceps femoris

10 Semitendinosus

 11 Semimembranosus

12 Femoral artery

13 Femoral vein

14 Hypodermis

15 Femur

16 Yellow bone marrow

17 Sciatic nerve

18 Saphenous nerve

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205

Superfi cial muscles of the anterior crus

Anterior view

Deep muscles of the anterior crus

Anterolateral view

The anterior compartment of the leg consists of

four muscles, all of which dorsal fl ex the ankle

joint and are innervated by the deep fi bular nerve

Anterior Leg Muscles

from the posterior divisions of the sacral plexus. These muscles sit in a tight fascial compartment anterior to the

interosseous membrane and between the tibia and fi bula. As their tendons cross the ankle joint they are held

fi rmly in place between the tibial and fi bular malleoli by two strong retinacular bands. Two of the muscles, the

tibialis anterior and fi bularis tertius, insert on the ankle. The other two muscles, the extensor digitorum longus

and extensor hallucis longus, reach the ends of the digits and also function as digital extensors.

Anterior Leg Muscles

 1 Tibialis anterior

 2 Extensor digitorum longus

 3 Extensor hallucis longus

 4 Fibularis tertius

Other Muscles and Structures

 5 Vastus lateralis

 6 Fibularis longus

 7 Fibularis brevis

 8 Gastrocnemius

 9 Soleus

10 Extensor hallucis brevis

 11 Extensor digitorum brevis

12 Interosseous membrane

13 Anterior tibial vessels

14 Extensor retinaculum

15 Tibia

16 Patellar ligament

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206

Muscles of the crus

Lateral view

Deep muscles of the crus

Lateral view

The small lateral compartment, like the anterior

compartment, arises from the embryonic dorsal

limb muscles. The two muscles within this comLateral Leg Muscles

partment, the fi bularis longus and fi bularis brevis, are similar. They both arise from the lateral aspect of the

fi bula. They both pursue a pulley-like course behind the lateral malleolus, under the cover of a retinaculum,

in their passage to the bottom of the foot. They both plantar fl ex and evert the foot. The superfi cial fi bular

nerve, from the posterior divisions of the sacral plexus, supplies both muscles.

Lateral Leg Muscles

 1 Fibularis longus

 2 Fibularis brevis

Other Muscles and Structures

 3 Gastrocnemius

 4 Soleus

 5 Fibularis tertius

 6 Extensor digitorum longus

 7 Tibialis anterior

 8 Extensor hallucis longus

 9 Extensor digitorum brevis

10 Interosseous membrane

 11 Calcaneal tendon

12 Femur

13 Tibia

14 Fibula

15 Lateral malleolus

16 Patellar ligament

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207

Superfi cial muscles of the crus

Posterior view Deep muscles of the crus

Posterior view

The posterior compartment of the leg comprises the large

muscle mass on the back of the leg that is often referred to

as the calf. This compartment has two distinct muscle

Posterior Leg Muscles

groups – a large superfi cial group and a smaller deep group. The superfi cial group, the gastrocnemius, the soleus, and the

plantaris, each insert on the calcaneus. The gastrocnemius and soleus combine to form the large tendocalcaneus, or Achilles

tendon. The smaller, deep group consists of four muscles, three of which form a pulley-like arrangement around the medial

malleolus. These are the fl exor hallucis longus, fl exor digitorum longus, and tibialis anterior. The fourth muscle in the group

is the deeply situated popliteus that occupies the fl oor of the popliteal fossa.

Posterior Leg Muscles

 1 Tibialis posterior

 2 Flexor digitorum longus

 3 Flexor hallucis longus

 4 Popliteus

 5 Plantaris

 6 Soleus

 7 Gastrocnemius

Other Muscles and Structures

 8 Fibularis brevis

 9 Fibularis longus (tendon)

10 Flexor digitorum brevis

 11 Abductor hallucis

12 Flexor hallucis brevis

13 Abductor digiti minimi

14 Calcaneal tendon

15 Fibula

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 Anterior view, muscles removed to expose pronator quadratus

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190

There are two

muscle groups

in the posterior

Posterior Antebrachial Muscles

antebrachium — the eight muscles of the lateral group that share a common attachment on or near the

lateral epicondyle of the humerus and the four muscles of the radial group that course along the distal

aspect of the radius to insert on the thumb and fi rst fi nger. Like the triceps of the posterior brachial

compartment, all the muscles of the posterior antebrachium receive innervation via the radial nerve.

With a few exceptions, the muscles are extensors of either the elbow, wrist, or digits.

Posterior Antebrachial Muscles

 1 Brachioradialis

 2 Anconeus

 3 Supinator

 4 Extensor carpi radialis longus

 5 Extensor carpi radialis brevis

 6 Extensor digitorum

 7 Extensor digiti minimi

 8 Extensor carpi ulnaris

 9 Abductor pollicis longus

10 Extensor pollicis longus

 11 Extensor pollicis brevis

12 Extensor indicis

Other Muscles and Structures

13 Biceps brachii

14 Brachialis

15 Triceps brachii

16 Flexor carpi radialis

17 Pronator teres

18 Flexor pollicis longus

19 Abductor digiti minimi

20 Dorsal interossei

Superfi cial muscles of the right antebrachium

Posterior view, hand pronated

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191

Deep muscles of the right antebrachium

Posterior view, lateral group muscles removed and hand pronated

Deep muscles of the right antebrachium

Anterolateral view, lateral group muscles removed and hand pronated

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192

There are three muscle groups in the hand — the muscles of the thenar eminence

at the base of the thumb, the muscles of the hypothenar eminence at the base of

the little fi nger, and the three layers of intermetacarpal muscles that occupy the

Hand Muscles

spaces between the metacarpal bones. All of these muscles arise from the anterior muscles of the embryonic limb bud and

receive anterior division nerve supply from the median and ulnar nerves as they pass from the anterior antebrachium into

the hand. While the median nerve supplies the majority of the muscles of the anterior antebrachium, the ulnar nerve supplies

all but three of the muscles in the hand.

Superfi cial muscles of the right hand

Anterior view

Muscles of the

thenar eminence

Muscles of the

hypothenar eminence 12 13

16

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193

Intermediate muscles of the right hand

Anterior view

Hand Muscles

 1 Abductor pollicis brevis

 2 Flexor pollicis brevis

 3 Adductor pollicis

 4 Abductor digiti minimi

 5 Flexor digiti minimi brevis

 6 Palmaris brevis

 7 Lumbricals

 8 Palmar interossei

 9 Dorsal interossei

Other Muscles and Structures

10 Flexor digitorum superficialis

 11 Flexor digitorum profundus

12 Palmaris longus

13 Flexor carpi ulnaris

14 Flexor pollucis longus

15 Flexor carpi radialis

16 Palmar aponeurosis

17 Flexor retinaculum

18 Ulna

Muscles of the

thenar eminence

Muscles of the

hypothenar eminence

Intermetacarpal muscles

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194

Hand Muscles

Deep muscles of the right hand

Anterior view

Muscles of the

thenar eminence

Muscles of the

hypothenar eminence

Intermetacarpal muscles

Hand Muscles

 1 Abductor pollicis brevis (cut)

 2 Flexor pollicis brevis (cut)

 3 Opponens pollicis

 4 Adductor pollicis

 5 Abductor digiti minimi

 6 Flexor digiti minimi brevis

 7 Opponens digiti minimi

 8 Palmaris brevis

 9 Lumbricals (cut)

10 Palmar interossei

 11 Dorsal interossei

Other Muscles and Structures

12 Flexor digitorum superficialis

13 Flexor digitorum profundus

14 Carpal tunnel

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Th e design of the inferior limb

musculature is similar to that of the true limb muscles of the superior limb.

Th e major diff erence between the two limbs is that the proximal end of the

lower limb forms a direct skeletal attachment to the vertebral column via the

strong sacro-iliac joint, unlike the unattached scapula of the superior limb.

Because of this diff erence, the inferior limb does not require body wall muscles to support, stabilize, and suspend it from the axial skeleton. Th ere are

two additional features that are important to keep in mind when studying

this powerful locomotor limb. First, during development of the lower limb

the embryonic posterior muscles rotate and reposition themselves to the

anterior aspect of the limb. For this reason the knee and ankle move directly opposite the elbow and wrist. Th e second notable feature is that

there are three muscle compartments in the thigh and leg, as compared

to just two in the brachium and antebrachium. One of the two original

compartments in each lower limb segment (thigh and leg) splits to give

rise to an additional compartment. Th e thigh has an anterior compartment and a posterior compartment, but the posterior compartment is

subdivided into posterior and medial compartments. Th e leg has a large

posterior compartment and a smaller anterior compartment and the

 anterior compartment is subdivided into anterior and lateral compartments. As with the upper limb, we present the muscles of the lower limb

proper in their muscle compartments. Again, this greatly simplifi es the

learning process because most of the muscles in a compartment share similar attachments, perform common actions, and have a common nerve supply.

Unlike the compartmental muscles of the lower limb proper, the proximal

 muscles of the lower limb that surround the hip joint are a more diverse group of

muscles. Some are true limb muscles, while others are annexed muscles from the

trunk wall. We organize these hip muscles into three groups — the deep hip rotator

muscles, the gluteal muscles, and the hip fl exors.

Find more information

about the muscles of the

lower limb in

REAL ANATOMY

195

Lower Limb Muscles

196

the lower limb to the scapular muscles of the upper limb. Like the shoulder muscles, the muscles surrounding the hip joint

are a varied group of muscles, with some annexed from the body wall of the abdominopelvic region. In the limb proper the

muscles develop in muscular compartments as they do in the upper limb; however, the embryonic posterior aspect of the

limb rotates to an anterior position. As a result, the nerves that arise from the posterior divisions of the lumbosacral plexus

innervate the anterior muscle compartments, and the nerves from the anterior divisions of the plexus innervate the posterior

muscle compartments. The developmental groups of muscles and their nerve supply are outlined below.

The muscles of the lower limb share similarities with their

upper limb counterparts, yet have important differences. As

you will notice in the groups below there are no homologues in

Lower Limb Muscles

Hip Muscles

 Gluteal muscles

(Nerve supply - gluteal nerves, superior to maximus and inferior

to the other three; arise from lateral aspect of ilium and are prime

movers and stabilizers of hip joint)

 Gluteus maximus

 Gluteus medius

 Gluteus minimus

 Tensor fasciae latae

 Deep hip rotator muscles

(All are lateral rotators of the hip joint and insert on the medial

aspect of greater trochancter)

 Piriformis

 Obturator internus

 Obturator externus

 Superior gemellus

 Inferior gemellus

 Quadratus femoris

 Hip flexor muscles

 Psoas major

 Iliacus

Anterior Thigh Muscles

(Nerve supply - femoral nerve; major extensor group of the knee)

 Sartorius

 Quadriceps femoris

 Rectus femoris

 Vastus lateralis

 Vastus intermedius

 Vastus medialis

 Articularis genu

Medial Thigh Muscles

(Nerve supply - obturator nerve with exception of pectineus, which is

supplied by femoral nerve and condylar head of adductor magnus,

which is supplied by tibial nerve)

 Pectineus

 Adductor brevis

 Adductor longus

 Adductor magnus

 Adductor minimis

 Gracilis

Posterior Thigh Muscles

(Nerve supply - Tibial nerve with exception of short head of biceps

femoris, which is supplied by common fibular nerve)

 Biceps femoris

 Semitendinosus

 Semimembranosus

Anterior Leg Muscles

(Nerve supply - deep fibular nerve)

 Tibialis anterior

 Extensor digitorum longus

 Extensor hallucis longus

 Peroneus tertius

Lateral Leg Muscles

(Nerve supply - superficial fibular nerve)

 Peroneus longus

 Peroneus brevis

Posterior Leg Muscles

(Nerve supply - tibial nerve)

 Triceps surae

 Gastrocnemius

 Soleus

 Plantaris

 Popliteus

 Tibialis posterior

 Flexor digitorum longus

 Flexor hallucis longus

Dorsal Foot Muscles

(Nerve supply - deep fibular nerve)

 Extensor hallucis brevis

 Extensor digitorum brevis

Plantar Foot Muscles

(Nerve supply - tibial nerve via its terminal branches, medial plantar

nerve supplies first lumbrical, abductor hallucis, flexor hallucis brevis,

and flexor digitorum brevis; lateral plantar nerve supplies all the others)

 First layer

 Abductor hallucis

 Flexor digitorum brevis

 Abductor digiti minimi

 Second layer

 Quadratus plantae

 Lumbricales

 Third layer

 Flexor halluci brevis

 Adductor hallucis

 Flexor digiti minimi brevis

 Fourth layer

 Plantar interossei

 Dorsal interossei

197

Muscles of the lower limb

Anterior view

 1 Tensor fasciae latae

 2 Iliacus

 3 Psoas major

 4 Pectineus

 5 Adductor longus

 6 Gracilis

 7 Sartorius

 8 Rectus femoris

 9 Vastus lateralis

10 Vastus medialis

 11 Gluteus maximus

12 Adductor magnus

13 Biceps femoris

14 Semitendinosus

15 Semimembranosus

16 Gastrocnemius

17 Soleus

18 Tibialis anterior

19 Fibularis longus

20 Fibularis brevis

21 Iliotibial tract

22 Calcaneal tendon

23 Quadriceps tendon

24 Flexor digitorum longus

Muscles of the lower limb

Posterior view

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